Honeybee Project
Honeybees are important because they pollinate our crops. Plants, like animals, have to mate in order to reproduce. Since plants have no way to move, they do this through pollination which is the process by which pollen is transferred from the anther (male part) to the stigma (female part) of the plant. Although some plants’ pollen is carried by the wind or other insects, most pollen is transported by bees. Bees go from flower to flower collecting pollen and leaving some behind for fertilization. Without bees, plants cannot reproduce and therefore die. When the crops start to die in large numbers, our entire country loses capital.
We should be concerned about honeybees because we like to eat food and we don’t want to die. A massive number of crops that we grow in the US are largely pollinated by bees and without them, there would be much less food. Since we have to eat in order to survive, the cost of food would go up tremendously and we would still have to buy it. Not everyone makes enough money to buy food and if they can’t eat, they will eventually die. Bees are largely responsible for our existence on this planet.
We should be concerned about honeybees because we like to eat food and we don’t want to die. A massive number of crops that we grow in the US are largely pollinated by bees and without them, there would be much less food. Since we have to eat in order to survive, the cost of food would go up tremendously and we would still have to buy it. Not everyone makes enough money to buy food and if they can’t eat, they will eventually die. Bees are largely responsible for our existence on this planet.
Dissection Project
I chose to dissect a shark not because it was the easiest of the three animals but because I have cut fish open in the past and have not been grossed out by it. When cleaning fish for eating, I’ve always wondered what all those guts were that I was pulling out of the skin. Through the dissection process, I learned about how sharks sense their surroundings using not only their eyes but also the lateral line and ampullae of Lorenzini which sense changes in pressure and water movement. I also learned about their external features and how they help them to balance and maneuver through the water. The biggest take away for me was the internal anatomy of the shark and how it differs from that of a human. This project taught me a lot about myself as well as the shark. It showed me how much I enjoy cutting into skin and learning about everything that is inside. I believe that this is a good hint to me to become a surgeon as my career.
Crime scene investigation
This project was about forensic science and how it is used in criminal investigations. We begun this project by learning about exoneration and how DNA evidence has proven hundreds of convicts innocent. As DNA analysis advances, it becomes more and more accepted and used as a way to investigate crime. Although our criminal justice system is out of line, the use of DNA evidence is helping to improve the rate at which criminals are caught as well as the accuracy of every conviction. Many different types of forensic science can be used depending on the situation to identify victims, suspects, and other people of interest.
In order to solve our assigned case, it was necessary to learn about and perform different forensic sciences including Entomology, Odontology, Blood typing, DNA testing, superglue fuming, mitochondrial DNA testing, anthropology, and. Entomology is the use of insects to determine facts about a victim.. Odontology is the analysis of teeth as a form of identification. We used this to narrow down the list of possible victims. Blood typing is also used to narrow down lists of possible people of interest. Testing Nucleic DNA is the most sure way of discovering someone’s identity and is done through a series of procedures resulting in a DNA fingerprint. Fingerprints are made visible through superglue fuming. A chamber with evidence in it is filled with superglue fumes and the composites of the fingerprints react to the adhesive making them clearly visible. DNA is passed from mother to child through hair. It is possible to test hair and discover the maternal line of the person. This is called mitochondrial DNA.
The most interesting forensic science to me was the testing of nucleic DNA because of the chemistry aspect of it. Going through all of the procedures of adding chemicals and sorting DNA was very interesting to me because of the idea of extracting, sorting, and processing things that cannot even be seen with a microscope. Also, learning about the specific reactions that allow the DNA to do these things really deepened my perspective on DNA and how it works.
The most interesting forensic science to me was the testing of nucleic DNA because of the chemistry aspect of it. Going through all of the procedures of adding chemicals and sorting DNA was very interesting to me because of the idea of extracting, sorting, and processing things that cannot even be seen with a microscope. Also, learning about the specific reactions that allow the DNA to do these things really deepened my perspective on DNA and how it works.
Nuclear DNA testing
Crime Scene: #2
Evidence being examined: Blood under victim’s fingernails
Forensic science used: Nuclear DNA
Summary of the science:
The testing of deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA, has proven to be an extremely useful tool in solving criminal investigations. DNA testing had been used mostly for discovering parental lines, matching children to parents until the nineteen eighties when testing for DNA came into the criminal justice system. The first criminal case in which Nuclear DNA was used was in 1986 proving the innocence of a 17 year old boy accused of committing two rape-murders. The first conviction based on DNA was made in Florida only a year later confirming a rape when semen samples from the victim Proved Tommy Lee Andrews to be guilty. Since then, DNA testing has exonerated over 320 people and assisted in countless cases helping both with defense and prosecution.
Nobody has the same DNA. Everyone is different and DNA is what defines those differences. As you can imagine, the possession of someone’s true identification out of 7 billion people in the world can be very useful. According to Locard’s Exchange Principle, everything leaves a trace and often those traces contain Nucleic DNA. DNA can be found in almost anything that comes from the body. Among these things are semen, blood, tissue, saliva, and hair. Once a piece of evidence containing DNA is obtained, the DNA can be extracted from the sample and then hopefully it can be matched to an individual using a DNA database therefore giving us a person of interest in the case. According to Locard’s Exchange Principle, everything leaves a trace and often those traces contain Nucleic DNA. DNA can be found in almost anything that comes from the body. Among these things are semen, blood, tissue, saliva, and hair.
Testing Nuclear DNA samples is a tedious task but well worth the effort. After foregoing a series of steps, the end result is pure DNA. These steps are extracting, duplicating, and sorting.
The first step in obtaining a Nuclear DNA sample is extracting the DNA from the evidence. Once the evidence is in a test tube, salt is added in order to breakdown the connections between nucleic acids in the cell and also neutralize the electric charge of the double helix structure. Next, a lysis buffer is added to the tube. The lysis buffer is a mixture of dish soap and water and its job is to remove the cellular membrane which is made up of oils. Just like washing dishes, it “cuts the grease.” The final step of the extraction process is to add ice cold alcohol to the mixture. The test tube is left to sit and the various substances separate. The DNA, not being soluble in alcohol, rises to the top and is visible to the naked eye floating in the alcohol. Dye can also be added before the alcohol if the DNA needs to be more visible.
Now, with a nice, clean, DNA sample, it is possible to preform the PCR process. PCR or Polymerase Chain reaction is a method invented by Kary Mullis to copy and recopy a DNA structure into billions of copies for to be more easily analyzed. To initiate the process, the DNA is put into a PCR testing tube. This tube is designed to distribute heat evenly throughout the contents while also not allowing them to boil. The DNA now in this special tube, primers are added. Primers choose a specific segment on the helix to be copied. One primer attaches to the top end of the segment and the other attaches to the bottom. Then the polymerase is added. The polymerase acts as a copy machine, copying the DNA from the cell before the cell splits in two. DNA is built of four types of nucleotides T’s, A’s, G’s, and C’s. The polymerase then attracts these nucleotides that are floating around and attaches them to the primer duplicating the sequence. Once all of the components are in the test tube, it is placed in the thermal cylinder and heated to 95ºC and this separates the two helixes. The cylinder is then cooled to 50ºC and the primers attach to the strands. It then is heated to 72ºC and the Polymerase can now attach to the primers and add nucleotides to the strands. This process is then done over and over to produce billions of copies of the DNA.
The third step is the sorting of the DNA through the Gel Electrophoresis. The Gel Electrophoresis is a jello like substance that acts like a sort of sponge sifter. To make the device, the gel is poured into a mold in a rectangular shape with wells in one end. It kind of looks like a spiral notebook without the spiral. Once the gel is solidified, the rectangle can be removed from the mold and the DNA is inserted into the wells. Next, and electrical current is hooked up to each end of the gel. The DNA strands, being negatively charged are attracted to the positive current and pulled through the gel. The shorter strands go through faster and the long strands go slower therefore sorting the strands by length. The final product of this process is what is called a DNA fingerprint and this is what is documented as someone’s DNA identification.
An advancement in DNA technology is that in recent years it has been made possible to extract DNA samples from evidence that is not fresh and also to extract it from smaller pieces of evidence. As the testing of DNA progresses, more and more data banks are being created, greatly increasing the efficiency of testing.
Through DNA testing it was discovered that the the blood under the fingernails of Nathan Herron was did not belong to John Hannah or James Newell, our two suspects for the murder.
Sources Used:
http://www.forensicmag.com/articles/2005/01/evolution-dna-evidence-crime-solving-judicial-and-legislative-history
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/human_bio/problem_sets/dna_forensics_1/01t.html
http://www.innocenceproject.org/Content/DNA_Exonerations_Nationwide.php
http://siarchives.si.edu/research/videohistory_catalog9577.html
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/pcr/
Evidence being examined: Blood under victim’s fingernails
Forensic science used: Nuclear DNA
Summary of the science:
The testing of deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA, has proven to be an extremely useful tool in solving criminal investigations. DNA testing had been used mostly for discovering parental lines, matching children to parents until the nineteen eighties when testing for DNA came into the criminal justice system. The first criminal case in which Nuclear DNA was used was in 1986 proving the innocence of a 17 year old boy accused of committing two rape-murders. The first conviction based on DNA was made in Florida only a year later confirming a rape when semen samples from the victim Proved Tommy Lee Andrews to be guilty. Since then, DNA testing has exonerated over 320 people and assisted in countless cases helping both with defense and prosecution.
Nobody has the same DNA. Everyone is different and DNA is what defines those differences. As you can imagine, the possession of someone’s true identification out of 7 billion people in the world can be very useful. According to Locard’s Exchange Principle, everything leaves a trace and often those traces contain Nucleic DNA. DNA can be found in almost anything that comes from the body. Among these things are semen, blood, tissue, saliva, and hair. Once a piece of evidence containing DNA is obtained, the DNA can be extracted from the sample and then hopefully it can be matched to an individual using a DNA database therefore giving us a person of interest in the case. According to Locard’s Exchange Principle, everything leaves a trace and often those traces contain Nucleic DNA. DNA can be found in almost anything that comes from the body. Among these things are semen, blood, tissue, saliva, and hair.
Testing Nuclear DNA samples is a tedious task but well worth the effort. After foregoing a series of steps, the end result is pure DNA. These steps are extracting, duplicating, and sorting.
The first step in obtaining a Nuclear DNA sample is extracting the DNA from the evidence. Once the evidence is in a test tube, salt is added in order to breakdown the connections between nucleic acids in the cell and also neutralize the electric charge of the double helix structure. Next, a lysis buffer is added to the tube. The lysis buffer is a mixture of dish soap and water and its job is to remove the cellular membrane which is made up of oils. Just like washing dishes, it “cuts the grease.” The final step of the extraction process is to add ice cold alcohol to the mixture. The test tube is left to sit and the various substances separate. The DNA, not being soluble in alcohol, rises to the top and is visible to the naked eye floating in the alcohol. Dye can also be added before the alcohol if the DNA needs to be more visible.
Now, with a nice, clean, DNA sample, it is possible to preform the PCR process. PCR or Polymerase Chain reaction is a method invented by Kary Mullis to copy and recopy a DNA structure into billions of copies for to be more easily analyzed. To initiate the process, the DNA is put into a PCR testing tube. This tube is designed to distribute heat evenly throughout the contents while also not allowing them to boil. The DNA now in this special tube, primers are added. Primers choose a specific segment on the helix to be copied. One primer attaches to the top end of the segment and the other attaches to the bottom. Then the polymerase is added. The polymerase acts as a copy machine, copying the DNA from the cell before the cell splits in two. DNA is built of four types of nucleotides T’s, A’s, G’s, and C’s. The polymerase then attracts these nucleotides that are floating around and attaches them to the primer duplicating the sequence. Once all of the components are in the test tube, it is placed in the thermal cylinder and heated to 95ºC and this separates the two helixes. The cylinder is then cooled to 50ºC and the primers attach to the strands. It then is heated to 72ºC and the Polymerase can now attach to the primers and add nucleotides to the strands. This process is then done over and over to produce billions of copies of the DNA.
The third step is the sorting of the DNA through the Gel Electrophoresis. The Gel Electrophoresis is a jello like substance that acts like a sort of sponge sifter. To make the device, the gel is poured into a mold in a rectangular shape with wells in one end. It kind of looks like a spiral notebook without the spiral. Once the gel is solidified, the rectangle can be removed from the mold and the DNA is inserted into the wells. Next, and electrical current is hooked up to each end of the gel. The DNA strands, being negatively charged are attracted to the positive current and pulled through the gel. The shorter strands go through faster and the long strands go slower therefore sorting the strands by length. The final product of this process is what is called a DNA fingerprint and this is what is documented as someone’s DNA identification.
An advancement in DNA technology is that in recent years it has been made possible to extract DNA samples from evidence that is not fresh and also to extract it from smaller pieces of evidence. As the testing of DNA progresses, more and more data banks are being created, greatly increasing the efficiency of testing.
Through DNA testing it was discovered that the the blood under the fingernails of Nathan Herron was did not belong to John Hannah or James Newell, our two suspects for the murder.
Sources Used:
http://www.forensicmag.com/articles/2005/01/evolution-dna-evidence-crime-solving-judicial-and-legislative-history
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/human_bio/problem_sets/dna_forensics_1/01t.html
http://www.innocenceproject.org/Content/DNA_Exonerations_Nationwide.php
http://siarchives.si.edu/research/videohistory_catalog9577.html
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/pcr/
Forensic odontology
George McQuinn
Crime Scene: #2
Evidence being examined: Teeth
Forensic science used: Forensic Odontology
Summary of the Science:
The use of teeth as a form of identification is not a new concept and has been used for centuries. Teeth are extremely resistant to any kind of destruction, so they can be a very reliable source for identification. Odontology can be used in very extreme cases such a fire where nothing of the victim remains except their teeth. It was used in identifying Hitler and his wife at the end of WW2 as well as in the aftermath of the bombing of the world trade centers on 9/11. Age can also be determined by looking at teeth. This can be done through the Gustafson method (looking for six signs of wear) or the Lamendin method (looking at transparency of roots).
Forensic Odontology is the use of teeth, dental records and tooth imprints to identify a person. Specialists in this field are used for identifying human remains that cannot be identified thorough more common methods, identifying victims of mass casualties such as terrorism attacks and natural disasters, finding out where bite marks come from, and finding the age of a victim. An Odontologist attends autopsies and observes everything about the body as the coroner does his job, taking photos and notes on everything he sees. By comparing and contrasting the newly discovered teeth with the x-rays and dental records of the persons of interest list, It is possible to hugely narrow down the list and often find a perfect match for a victim.
A recently discovered and proven way to estimate the age of a victim based on his/her teeth is by observing the lining of the tooth roots. Studies show that cementum shows an annual pattern as part of its decomposition process. Less tedious ways of discovering age are simply observing the wear and tear of the teeth over the years.
A common use of forensic odontology is identifying a body based on its’ dental structure. This process is based on comparisons. After observing, photographing, and making notes on the victim’s teeth, side by side comparisons can be made to the radiographs of the dental records of people of interest. The most obvious way to compare is through dental work. Fillings, braces, retainers, and caps or lack of these things can often narrow down the list if not determine who the victim is.
In recent years, with new technological advancements, computerized comparison programs have been able to give us faster, more accurate results. Although our criminal justice system can be faulty, as technology advances, there becomes less and less room for error.
After narrowing down the list of victims through Odontology, the main person of interest had no dental records. Although the dental records of the victim were inconclusive, the identity of our body was confirmed through mitochondrial DNA.
Sources Used
http://www.forensicmag.com/articles/2007/01/look-forensic-odontology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_dentistry
http://www.biology-online.org/articles/forensic-odontology/history-behind-forensic-odontology.html
http://www.theiai.org/disciplines/odontology/
http://explorehealthcareers.org/en/Career/126/Forensic_Odontology
Crime Scene: #2
Evidence being examined: Teeth
Forensic science used: Forensic Odontology
Summary of the Science:
The use of teeth as a form of identification is not a new concept and has been used for centuries. Teeth are extremely resistant to any kind of destruction, so they can be a very reliable source for identification. Odontology can be used in very extreme cases such a fire where nothing of the victim remains except their teeth. It was used in identifying Hitler and his wife at the end of WW2 as well as in the aftermath of the bombing of the world trade centers on 9/11. Age can also be determined by looking at teeth. This can be done through the Gustafson method (looking for six signs of wear) or the Lamendin method (looking at transparency of roots).
Forensic Odontology is the use of teeth, dental records and tooth imprints to identify a person. Specialists in this field are used for identifying human remains that cannot be identified thorough more common methods, identifying victims of mass casualties such as terrorism attacks and natural disasters, finding out where bite marks come from, and finding the age of a victim. An Odontologist attends autopsies and observes everything about the body as the coroner does his job, taking photos and notes on everything he sees. By comparing and contrasting the newly discovered teeth with the x-rays and dental records of the persons of interest list, It is possible to hugely narrow down the list and often find a perfect match for a victim.
A recently discovered and proven way to estimate the age of a victim based on his/her teeth is by observing the lining of the tooth roots. Studies show that cementum shows an annual pattern as part of its decomposition process. Less tedious ways of discovering age are simply observing the wear and tear of the teeth over the years.
A common use of forensic odontology is identifying a body based on its’ dental structure. This process is based on comparisons. After observing, photographing, and making notes on the victim’s teeth, side by side comparisons can be made to the radiographs of the dental records of people of interest. The most obvious way to compare is through dental work. Fillings, braces, retainers, and caps or lack of these things can often narrow down the list if not determine who the victim is.
In recent years, with new technological advancements, computerized comparison programs have been able to give us faster, more accurate results. Although our criminal justice system can be faulty, as technology advances, there becomes less and less room for error.
After narrowing down the list of victims through Odontology, the main person of interest had no dental records. Although the dental records of the victim were inconclusive, the identity of our body was confirmed through mitochondrial DNA.
Sources Used
http://www.forensicmag.com/articles/2007/01/look-forensic-odontology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_dentistry
http://www.biology-online.org/articles/forensic-odontology/history-behind-forensic-odontology.html
http://www.theiai.org/disciplines/odontology/
http://explorehealthcareers.org/en/Career/126/Forensic_Odontology